John Bolton, “Erratic, Irrational and Unconstrained: What aSecond Trump Term Would Mean for America’s Foreign Policy”, The Hill (online), 1 August 2023, https:// thehill.com/opinion/national-security/4129137-erratic-irrational-and-unconstrained-what-a-second-trump-term-would-mean-for-americas-foreign-policy/ (accessed 31 August 2023); Bob Woodward, Fear: Trump in the White House (New York, NY, 2018), 18; Philip Gordon, “A Vision of Trump atWar: How the President Could Stumble into Conflict”, Foreign Affairs 96,no. 3 (2017): 10–14, 15–19.
The White House, National Security Strategy of the United States of America (Washington, D.C., December 2017), https:// trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/ NSS-Final-12-18-2017-0905.pdf (accessed 31 August 2023).
National Association for Business Economics Conference, “Peter Navarro Remarks”, 6 March 2017, https://www.c-span. org/video/?424924-3/national-association-business-economics-conference-peter-navarro-remarks&event=424924&playEvent (accessed 31 August 2023).
Henry Farrell and Abraham L. Newman, “Weaponized Interdependence: How Global Economic Networks Shape State Coercion”, International Security 44, no. 1 (2019): 42–79.
Thomas Oatley, “Weaponized International Financial Interdependence”, in The Uses and Abuses of Weaponized Interdependence, ed. Daniel W. Drezner et al. (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2021), 115–30.
Laura von Daniels, Susanne Dröge and Alexandra Bögner, Ways Out of the WTO’s December Crisis: How to Prevent the Open Global Trade Order from Unraveling, SWP Comment 46/2019 (Berlin: Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik, December 2019), doi: 10.18449/2019C46.
In a dispute with China over suspected dumping of solar panels by China, Brussels responded with its own tariffs in December 2013 and later agreed a quota with China for imports to be imported duty-free. See Philip Blenkinsop, “EU Commission Favors Keeping Limits on Chinese Solar Panels”, Reuters (online), 21 December 2016, https://www.reuters.com/article/ uk-eu-china-solar-idUKKB N14A1FX (accessed 31 August 2023).
Brock R. Williams et al., Trump Administration Tariff Actions (Sections 201, 232, and 301): FAQs, CRS Report, no. R45529 (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Services [CRS], 22February 2019), 35, https://crsreports.congress.gov/ product/pdf/R/R45529/5 (accessed 31 August 2023).
Marcus Noland et al., Assessing Trade Agendas in the US Presidential Campaign, PIIE Briefing 6/2016 (Washington, D.C.: Peterson Institute for International Economics [PIIE], September 2016), https://www.piie.com/sites/default/files/ documents/piieb16-6.pdf (accessed 31 August 2023).
Chad P. Bown, For Trump, It Was a Summer of Tariffs and More Tariffs: Here’s Where Things Stand, Op Ed (Washington D.C.: PIIE, 17 September 2018), https://www.piie.com/ commentary/ op-eds/trump-it-was-summer-tariffs-and-more-tariffs-heres-where-things-stand (accessed 31 August 2023).
Ana Swanson and Jack Ewing, “U.S. and E.U. Are Headed for a Food Fight over Trade”, The New York Times (online), 6 March 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/06/us/ politics/trade-deal-europe-usa.html (accessed 31 August 2023).
Judith H. Bello and Alan F. Holmer, “‘Special 301’: Its Requirements, Implementation, and Significance”, Fordham International Law Journal 13, no. 3 (1989): 259–75.
Andres B. Schwarzenberg, Section 301 of the Trade Act of1974: Origin, Evolution, and Use, CRS Report, no. R46604 (Washington, D.C.: CRS, 14 December 2020), https:// crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R46604/4 (accessed 31August 2023).
Office of the United States Trade Representative (USTR), “Section 301 Fact Sheet” (March 2018), https://ustr.gov/about-us/policy-offices/press-office/fact-sheets/2018/march/section-301-fact-sheet (accessed 15 October 2021).
Eight presidential decrees were aimed directly at China. In addition, there were more than 200 executive actions that directly or indirectly impacted China and its businesses. See Bethany Allen-Ebrahimian, “Special Report: Trump’s U.S.-China Transformation”, Axios, 19 January 2021, https://www. axios.com/2021/01/19/trump-china-policy-special-report (accessed 31 August 2023).
Chad P. Bown, “Export Controls: America’s Other National Security Threat”, Duke Journal of Comparative & International Law 30, no. 2 (2020): 283–308.
In its Made in China 2025 strategy of 2015, the leadership in Beijing laid claim to a leading role in certain cutting-edge technologies. Based on the MCF, the Chinese Communist Party and the military were given access to companies and their innovations at any time. The MCF serves the reciprocal transfer of military and civilian technologies. See Yoram Evron and Richard Bitzinger, The Fourth Industrial Revolution and Military-civil Fusion: A New Paradigm for Military Innovation? (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2023), 88–128.
On 13 August 2018, the Export Control Reform Act and the Foreign Investment Risk Review Modernization Act were passed. US Congress, H.R. 5040 – Export Control Reform Act of 2018 (Washington, D.C., 15 February 2018), https://www. congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/house-bill/5040/text (accessed 31 August 2023); US Congress, National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019 (Section XVII for FIRRMA and Section XVII Subtitle B for ECRA), (Washington, D.C., 3 January 2018), https://www.congress.gov/115/bills/hr5515/BILLS-115hr 5515enr.pdf (accessed 1 September 2023).
Bown, “Export Controls” (see note 16).
US Congress, National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019 (see note 18).
James K. Jackson, The Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States (CFIUS), CRS Report, no. RL33388 (Washington, D.C.: CRS, 26 February 2020), https://crsreports.congress.gov/ product/details?prodcode=RL33388 (accessed September 2023).
According to an estimate by the Congressional Budget Office in July 2018, the expected additional expenditure to “expand, modernize, and strengthen the mission” of CFIUS for the years 2019 to 2023 amounted to US$100 million. Congressional Budget Office, S. 2098, Foreign Investment Risk Review Modernization Act of 2018, Cost Estimate (Washington, D.C., 23 July 2018), https://www.cbo.gov/system/files/2018-07/s2098.pdf.
Ibid.
James K. Jackson and Cathleen D. Cimino-Isaacs, CFIUS Reform under FIRRMA, In Focus, no.IF10952 (Washington, D.C.: CRS, 21 February 2020), https://sgp.fas.org/crs/natsec/ IF10952.pdf (accessed 1 September 2023).
“President Trump Halts Broadcom Takeover of Qualcomm”, Reuters (online), 13 March 2018, https://www.reuters. com/article/idUSKCN1GO1Q4/ (accessed 10 June 2024).
Emily Benson et al., Transatlantic Approaches to Outbound Investment Screening (Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies [CSIS], 17 January 2023), https:// www.csis.org/analysis/transatlantic-approaches-outbound-investment-screening (accessed 1 September 2023).
Martin Chorzempa, “Worst Case Averted on Foreign Investment Reviews”, Blog (Washington, D.C.: PIIE, 20 August 2018), https://www.piie.com/blogs/trade-and-investment-policy-watch/worst-case-averted-foreign-investment-reviews (accessed 1 September 2023).
Mark Landler et al., “Huawei Executive’s Arrest Intensifies Trade War Fears”, The New York Times (online), 6 December 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/06/us/politics/ huawei-meng-china-iran.html (accessed 1 September 2023).
The US Congress provides the legal basis for most US sanctions, but it is up to the executive branch to interpret and implement them. The withdrawal of sanctions is more complicated. While an act of Congress would be required tolift measures, the president has the authority to waive almost any sanction in whole or in part (known as a “waiver”) at any time, citing the “national interest”.
No human rights-related sanctions were imposed on Chinese entities until 2017. The Trump administration sanctioned a total of 39 individuals in 2017 (including one for alleged human rights violations). The number rose to a record high of 54 sanctions against Chinese individuals or organisations in 2020 (20 for human rights violations).
The group of authors of the “Foreign Policy for the Middle Class” at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace included Jake Sullivan, who became National Security Advisor after the election; Jennifer Harris, for a time Senior Director for International Economics and Labor at the National Security Council; and Salman Ahmed, Chief of the Planning Staff at the State Department.
Household income is used to determine which households are considered middle class. In the “Foreign Policy for the Middle Class” strategy, the US middle class is defined as households “that fall within the range of two-thirds to twice the median income, adjusted for household size and local cost of living”. According to the report, the median annual household income for a family of three in the United States in 2018 was US$75,000. The middle class therefore includes all incomes for a family of three between US$48,505 and US$145,516. Salman Ahmed et al., eds., Making U.S. Foreign Policy Work Better for the Middle Class, Research Paper (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, September 2020), https://carnegieendowment.org/2020/09/ 23/making-u.s.-foreign-policy-work-better-for-middle-class-pub-82728 (accessed 1 September 2023).
Ibid., 49f., 53.
Ibid., 52f.
Ibid.
Ibid., 4.
Asma Khalid and Barbara Sprunt, “Biden Counters Trump’s ‘America First’ with ‘Build Back Better’ Economic Plan”, National Public Radio (NPR), 9 July 2020, https://www. npr.org/2020/07/09/889347429/biden-counters-trumps-america-first-with-build-back-better-economic-plan (accessed 1 September 2023).
Joe Biden and Kamala Harris, “The Biden Plan for a Clean Energy Revolution and Environmental Justice”, Campaign, 3 September 2019, https://htv-prod-media.s3. amazonaws.com/files/bidenclimateplan-1559610636.pdf (accessed 1 September 2023).
Craig Welch and Sarah Gibbens, “Trump vs. Biden on the Environment – Here’s Where They Stand”, National Geographic (online), 19 October 2020, https://www.national geographic.com/science/graphics/trump-vs-biden-environ ment-heres-where-they-stand (accessed 10 June 2024).
The White House, Interim National Security Strategic Guidance, Washington, D.C., March 2021, https://www.white house.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/NSC-1v2.pdf (accessed 1 September 2023); Kathleen McInnis, The Interim National Security Strategic Guidance, In Focus, no. IF11798 (Washington, D.C.: CRS, 29 March 2021), https://crsreports.congress.gov/ product/pdf/IF/IF11798 (accessed 1 September 2023).
US Department of State, “A Foreign Policy for the American People – Speech by Antony Blinken, Secretary ofState” (Washington, D.C., 3 March 2021), https://www. state.gov/a-foreign-policy-for-the-american-people/ (accessed 1 September 2023).
The White House, National Security Strategy (Washington, D.C., October 2022, https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/ uploads/2022/10/Biden-Harris-Administrations-National-Security-Strategy-10.2022.pdf (accessed 1 September 2023).
Ibid., 15.
The White House, Executive Order on America’s Supply Chains (Washington, D.C., 24 February 2021), https:// www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/ 2021/02/24/executive-order-on-americas-supply-chains/ (accessed 1 September 2023).
The review process was continued from June 2021 in sixfurther areas, for which reports have been available since February 2022: 1) energy sector, 2) transport, 3) production and distribution of agricultural raw materials and food, 4)public health, 5) information and communication technology and 6) defence sector.
The White House, Building Resilient Supply Chains, Revitalizing American Manufacturing, and Fostering Broad-Based Growth: 100-Day Reviews under Executive Order 14017 (Washington, D.C., June 2021), 6f., https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/ uploads/2021/06/100-day-supply-chain-review-report.pdf (accessed 1 September 2023).
The White House, “Executive Order 14005 of January 25, 2021 – Ensuring the Future Is Made in All of America byAll of America’s Workers”, Federal Register 86, no. 17 (Washington, D.C., 28 January 2021): 7475–79, https://www. govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2021-01-28/pdf/2021-02038.pdf (accessed 1 September 2023).
Under the Act, unduly high procurement costs would be reached if the inclusion of US-made materials “will increase the cost of the overall project by more than 25 percent”. Office of Management and Budget, Memorandum for Heads of Executive Departments and Agencies (Washington, D.C., 18 April 2022), https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/ 2022/04/M-22-11.pdf (accessed 1 September 2023).
Thomas Schoenbaum, “The Biden Administration’s Trade Policy: Promise and Reality”, German Law Journal 24, no.1 (2023): 102–24.
US Congress, H.R. 3684 – Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (Washington, D.C., 15 November 2021), https://www. congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/house-bill/3684 (accessed 1September 2023).
The White House, Fact Sheet: The Bipartisan Infrastructure Deal (Washington, D.C., 6 November 2021), https://www. whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/ 11/06/fact-sheet-the-bipartisan-infrastructure-deal/ (accessed 1September 2023).
Adam N. Michel, Comparing the Cost of IRA Energy Tax Credits to Expensing (Washington, D.C.: CATO Institute, 27April, 2023), https://www.cato.org/blog/comparing-cost-ira-energy-tax-credits-expensing (accessed 1 May 2024).
Alan Rappeport and Jim Tankersley, “U.S. Debt on Pace to Top $54 Trillion over Next 10 Years”, The New York Times, 7February, 2024, https://www.nytimes.com/2024/02/07/ business/us-national-debt-congressional-budget-office.html (accessed 1 May 2024).
For an overview, see Wissenschaftlicher Beirat beim Bundesministerium der Finanzen, US-Inflation Reduction Act (IRA): Implikationen für Europa, Expert Opinion 01/2023 (Berlin, 5 May 2023), https://www.bundesfinanzministerium.de/ Content/DE/Downloads/Ministerium/Wissenschaftlicher-Beirat/Gutachten/us-inflation-reduction-act.pdf?__blob= publicationFile&v=8 (accessed 1 September 2023).
Jannik Jansen et al., For Climate, Profits, or Resilience? Why, Where and How the EU Should Respond to the Inflation Reduction Act, Policy Brief (Berlin: Hertie School, Jacques Delors Centre, 5 May 2023), https://www.delorscentre.eu/fileadmin/2_ Research/1_About_our_research/2_Research_centres/6_ Jacques_Delors_Centre/Publications/20230505_JDC_IRA.pdf (accessed 1 September 2023).
One exception is the promotion of hydrogen technology with IRA funds, which, however, are low in relation to the expenditure on proven technologies. See ibid.
For an overview, see Karen M. Sutter et al., Semiconductors and the CHIPS Act: The Global Context, CRS Report, no. R47558 (Washington, D.C.: CRS, 28 September 2023), https:// crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47558 (accessed 5December 2023).
Robert Casanova, “The CHIPS Act Has Already Sparked $200 Billion in Private Investments for U.S. Semiconductor Production” (Washington, D.C.: Semiconductor Industry Association, 14 December 2022), https://bit.ly/3HRRcrm (accessed 9 February 2024).
The White House, “Remarks by National Security Advisor Jake Sullivan on the Biden-Harris Administration’s National Security Strategy”, Georgetown University, 12 October 2022 (Washington, D.C., 13 October 2022), https://www. whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/speeches-remarks/2022/10/13/ remarks-by-national-security-advisor-jake-sullivan-on-the-biden-harris-administrations-national-security-strategy/ (accessed 1 September 2023).
The review was required under Section 301 of the Trade Act of 1974 four years after the tariffs were first imposed andbegan with initial notification steps in May 2022. The US Commerce Department announced that it would complete the investigation by the end of 2023, but has not yet published the report. Individual exemptions from tariffs have been extended until 31 May 2024. United States Trade Representative (USTR), Extension of Exclusions and Request for Comments: China’s Acts, Policies and Practices Related to Technology Transfer, Intellectual Property and Innovation (Washington, D.C., 29 December 2023), https://www.federalregister.gov/ documents/2023/12/29/2023-28770/extension-of-exclusions-and-request-for-comments-chinas-acts-policies-and-practices-related-to (accessed 26 January 2024).
The White House, “Fact Sheet: President Biden Takes Action to Protect American Workers and Businesses from China’s Unfair Trade Practices”, Washington, D.C., 14 May 2024.
David E. Bond et al., “US Department of Commerce Determines That Imports from Southeast Asia Are Circumventing ADD/CVD Orders on Solar Cells and Modules from China”, White & Case, 22 August 2023 (Alert), https://www. whitecase.com/insight-alert/us-department-commerce-determines-imports-southeast-asia-are-circumventing-addcvdl (accessed 1 September 2023).
Since June 2022, the UFLPA has required importers toprove that they are not importing products from forced labour. This primarily relates to goods that originate in whole or in part from Xinjiang or were processed or produced by companies there, or resources that were mined there and that are on the UFLPA’s Entity List. The US authorities are authorised to impose severe penalties for violations. Marti Flacks, What’s Next for the Uyghur Forced Labor Prevention Act? Critical Questions (Washington, D.C.: CSIS, 21 June 2023), https://www.csis.org/analysis/whats-next-uyghur-forced-labor-prevention-act (accessed 1 September 2023).
Chorzempa and von Daniels, New US Export Controls (seenote 22).
The White House, “Remarks by National Security Advisor Jake Sullivan at the Special Competitive Studies Project Global Emerging Technologies Summit” (Washington, D.C., 16 September 2022), https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/speeches-remarks/2022/09/16/remarks-by-national-security-advisor-jake-sullivan-at-the-special-competitive-studies-project-global-emerging-technologies-summit/ (accessed 1 September 2023).
Department of Commerce, Bureau of Industry and Security, “Implementation of Additional Export Controls: Certain Advanced Computing and Semiconductor Manufacturing Items; Supercomputer and Semiconductor End Use; Entity List Modification”, Federal Register 87, no. 197 (13October 13): 62186–215, https://www.govinfo.gov/ content/pkg/FR-2022-10-13/pdf/2022-21658.pdf (accessed 1September 2023).
Ana Swanson, “Netherlands and Japan Said to Join U.S. in Curbing Chip Technology Sent to China”, The New York Times (online), 28 January 2023, https://www.nytimes.com/ 2023/01/28/business/economy/netherlands-japan-china-chips.html (accessed 25 May 2024).
Diederik Baazil, Cagan Koc, Mackenzie Hawkins and Michael Nienaber, “US Urges Allies to Squeeze China Further on Chip Technology”, Bloomberg (online), 6 March 2024, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-03-06/us-urges-allies-to-further-squeeze-china-on-chip-technology (accessed 25 May 2024).
Tim Fist et al., “Chinese Firms Are Evading Chip Controls”, Foreign Policy (online), 21 June 2023, https://foreign policy.com/2023/06/21/china-united-states-semiconductor-chips-sanctions-evasion/ (accessed 25 May 2024).
William Alan Reinsch et al., Insight into the U.S. Semiconductor Export Controls Update (Washington, D.C.: CSIS, 20 October 2023), https://www.csis.org/analysis/insight-us-semi conductor-export-controls-update (accessed 10 November 2023).
The White House, “Background Press Call on President Biden’s Executive Order on Screening Inbound Foreign Investments”, press release, Washington, D.C., 15 September 2022, https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/press-briefings/2022/09/15/background-press-call-on-president-bidens-executive-order-on-screening-inbound-foreign-investments/ (accessed 1 September 2023).
The White House, Executive Order on Addressing United States Investments in Certain National Security Technologies and Products in Countries of Concern (Washington, D.C., 9 August 2023), https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presi dential-actions/2023/08/09/executive-order-on-addressing-united-states-investments-in-certain-national-security-technologies-and-products-in-countries-of-concern/ (accessed 1 September 2023).
David Shepardson, “China Outbound Investment Ruleto Be Completed by End of Year”, Reuters, 8 May 2024, https://www.reuters.com/markets/china-outbound-invest ment-rule-be-completed-by-end-year-us-official-2024-05-08/ (accessed 25 May 2024).
Martin Chorzempa, “Biden’s New Outbound Investment Restrictions with China Are a Sensible Compromise, But Further Tightening Is Likely”, Blog (Washington, D.C.: PIIE, 10 August 2023), https://www.piie.com/blogs/realtime-economics/bidens-new-outbound-investment-restrictions-china-are-sensible-compromise (accessed 1 September 2023).
Cathleen D. Cimino-Isaacs and Karen M. Sutter, Proposals to Regulate U.S. Outbound Investment to China, CRS, 8 April, 2024, https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IF/IF12629 (accessed May 25 2024).
Inu Manak, Outbound Investment Screening Would Be a Mistake (New York, NY: Council on Foreign Relations, 30 June 2022), https://www.cfr.org/article/outbound-investment-screening-would-be-mistake (accessed 1 September 2023).
Emily Kilcrease and Michael Frazer, Sanctions by the Numbers: SDN, CMIC, and Entity List Designations on China (Washington, D.C.: Center for a New American Security, 2 March 2023), https://www.cnas.org/publications/reports/sanctions-by-the-numbers-sdn-cmic-and-entity-list-designations-on-china (accessed 29 May 2024).
Robin Emmott, “EU, U.S. to Set Deadlines to End Tariffs, Urge Progress on COVID Study – Summit Draft”, Reuters (online), 9 June 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/eu-us-end-trade-tariffs-call-new-study-into-covid-19-origins-summit-draft-says-2021-06-09/ (accessed 1 September 2023).
European Commission, “EU and US Take Decisive Step to End Aircraft Dispute”, press release, Brussels, 15 June 2021, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/ en/ip_21_3001 (accessed 1 September 2023).
The White House, Fact Sheet: U.S.-EU Understanding on a Cooperative Framework for Large Civil Aircraft (Washington, D.C., 15 June 2021), https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/ statements-releases/2021/06/15/fact-sheet-u-s-eu-under standing-on-a-cooperative-framework-for-large-civil-aircraft/ (accessed 1 September 2023).
In the run-up to the first TTC meeting in Pittsburgh scheduled for September 2021, a submarine agreement between the Biden administration and Australia and the UK (AUKUS) caused diplomatic tensions with France. Paris felt that it was being cheated by the United States in the competition for arms sales and wanted to postpone the TTC. The meeting nevertheless took place as planned, albeit without the French EU Commissioner for Internal Market and Services, Thierry Breton. Alexandra Brzozowski et al., “EU and US Hold First Trade and Technology Talks amid Tensions”, Euractiv (online), 29 September 2021, https://www.euractiv. com/section/digital/news/eu-and-us-hold-first-trade-and-technology-talks-amid-tensions/ (accessed 25 January 2024).
The following TTC working groups were identified: 1)technology standards, 2) climate and clean technology, 3)secure supply chains, 4) security and competition in information and communication technology and services, 5) data governance and technology platforms, 6) misuse of technology as a threat to security and human rights, 7) cooperation on export controls and dual use items, 8) investment screening cooperation, 9) improved access to digital tools for small and medium-sized enterprises, 10) global trade challenges.
Josh Boak et al., “Biden Hikes Tariffs on Chinese EVs, Solar Cells, Steel, Aluminum – and Snipes at Trump”, Associated Press, 14 May 2024, https://apnews.com/article/biden-china-tariffs-electric-vehicles-evs-solar-2024ba735c47e04a 50898a88425c5e2c (accessed 31 May 2024).
In addition to the United States, IPEF members include Australia, Brunei, Fiji, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, New Zealand, Philippines, Singapore, South Korea, Thailand and Vietnam.
US Department of Commerce, “Indo-Pacific Framework(IPEF)” (Washington, D.C., May 2022), https://www. commerce.gov/ipef/indo-pacific-economic-framework (accessed 31 May 2024).
Erin L. Murphy, IPEF: Three Pillars Succeed, One Falters (Washington, D.C.: CSIS, 21 November 2023), https://www. csis.org/analysis/ipef-three-pillars-succeed-one-falters.
US-China Economic and Security Review Commission, 2022 Report to Congress (Washington, D.C., November 2022), 152ff., https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/2022-11/2022_ Annual_Report_to_Congress.pdf (accessed 30 July 2023).
Is China’s Covid-19 Diplomacy Succeeding? (Washington, D.C.: CSIS, ChinaPower Project, 23 September 2021), https://chinapower.csis.org/china-covid-medical-vaccine-diplomacy/ (accessed 1 September 2023).
In addition to the United States, APEP currently includes Barbados, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Canada, Mexico, Panama, Peru and Uruguay.
Figures according to data from World Integrated Trade Solutions.
Kyla H. Kitamura, U.S.-Japan Critical Minerals Agreement, Insight, no. IN12152 (Washington, D.C.: CRS, 17 May 2023), https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IN/IN12152 (accessed 1 September 2023).
United States Trade Representative, “USTR Announcement Regarding U.S.-Taiwan Trade Initiative”, press release, Washington, D.C., 18 May 2023, https://ustr.gov/about-us/ policy-offices/press-office/press-releases/2023/may/ustr-announcement-regarding-us-taiwan-trade-initiative (accessed 1 September 2023).
United States House Committee on Ways & Means, “House Approves Bill to Reassert Congress’ Constitutional Authority over Trade, Strengthen U.S.-Taiwan Relationship”, press release, Washington, D.C., 21 June 2023, https:// waysandmeans.house.gov/house-approves-bill-to-reassert-congress-constitutional-authority-over-trade-strengthen-u-s-taiwan-relationship/ (accessed 1 September 2023).
George Parker et al., “Joe Biden and Rishi Sunak Unveil ‘Atlantic Declaration’ to Strengthen Economic Ties”, Financial Times (online), 9 June 2023, https://www.ft.com/content/ 8f1667f8-f17b-4a56-82af-97fd812c4fe6 (accessed 1 September 2023); Ben Riley-Smith, “US Trade Deal Talks Won’t Start until 2025 at the Earliest”, The Telegraph (online), 12 April 2023, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/politics/2023/04/12/us-trade-deal-talks-2025-biden-sunak/ (accessed 1 September 2023).
Rudra Chaudhuri, What Is the United States-India Initiative on Critical and Emerging Technology (iCET)? (New Delhi: Carnegie India, 27 February 2023), https://carnegieindia.org/2023/02/ 27/what-is-united-states-india-initiative-on-critical-and-emerging-technology-icet-pub-89136 (accessed 1 September 2023).
The 2018 trade strategy contained the following central accusations: 1) “political actionism” by the Appellate Body, 2) frequent overstepping of the mandate, 3) disregard of procedural rules, in particular exceeding the 90-day deadline for the publication of reports, 4) inadmissible extension of the scope of the reports, 5) extension of the terms of office of the judges without the consent of WTO members. United States Trade Representative, 2018 Trade Policy Agenda and 2017 Annual Report (Washington, D.C., March 2018), https:// ustr.gov/sites/default/files/files/Press/Reports/2018/AR/2018%2520Annual%2520Report%2520FINAL.PDF (accessed 1 September 2023).
United States Trade Representative, “Ambassador Katherine Tai’s Remarks as Prepared for Delivery on the World Trade Organization”, press release, Washington, D.C., 14 October 2021, https://ustr.gov/about-us/policy-offices/ press-office/speeches-and-remarks/2021/october/ambassador-katherine-tais-remarks-prepared-delivery-world-trade-organization (accessed 1 September 2023).
In addition to the EU, the signatories to the MPIA include Australia, Benin, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Chinese Taipei, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Guatemala, Hong Kong, Iceland, Mexico, Montenegro, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Norway, Pakistan, Singapore, Switzerland, Ukraine and Uruguay. According to the statute, the MPIA is open to all interested states. The agreement is only to remain in force until a multilateral solution is found under the umbrella of the WTO. Since August 2020, 10 arbitrators have been appointed to rule on appeals against WTO panel reports.
Susanne Dröge, Ein CO2-Grenzausgleich für den Green Deal der EU, SWP-Studie 9/2021 (Berlin: Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik [SWP], July 2021), doi: 10.18449/2021S09.
Leslie Hook, “John Kerry Warns EU against Carbon Border Tax”, Financial Times (online), 12 March 2021, https:// www.ft.com/content/3d00d3c8-202d-4765-b0ae-e2b212 bbca98 (accessed 1 September 2023).
